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Islam
Islam (Arabic: الإسلام; al-'islām (help·info)) is a monotheistic religion based upon the Qur'an, its principal scripture. Islam's followers, known as Muslims, believe God (Arabic: Allāh) revealed the Qur'an to Muhammad and that Muhammad is God's final prophet (see: Prophets of Islam). The majority of Muslims see the actions and teachings of Muhammad, as related in the Sunnah and Hadith, to be indispensable tools for interpreting the Qur'an.
The word Islam signifies a humble attitude of submission to God and His will. This is, for example, to acknowledge the moral injunctions that were revealed to humanity in the Torah, the Gospels and the Qur’an as true and intended by God to further humanity’s well-being. One who thus surrenders to the will of God is called a muslim. According to the Qur’an, Jesus (whom Islamic tradition holds in great reverence) and the Jewish prophets were muslims.
Like Judaism and Christianity, Islam is an Abrahamic religion.[1] There are estimated to be 1.4 billion adherents, making Islam the second-largest religion in the world.[2]
Today, Muslims may be found throughout the world, particularly in the Middle East, North Africa, South Asia, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia. The majority of Muslims are not Arabs; only 20 percent of Muslims originate from Arab countries.[3] Islam is the second largest religion in the United Kingdom, and many other European countries, including France, which has the largest Muslim population in Western Europe.[4][5]

Beliefs
Muslims believe that God revealed a message to humanity through Muhammad (c. 570–July 6, 632) via the angel Gabriel.[6] Muhammad is considered to have been God's final prophet, the "Seal of the Prophets". The revelations made to Muhammad constitute the holy book of Islam, the Qur'an. The Qur'an is believed to be the flawless final revelation of God to humanity, valid until the day of the Resurrection.
Muslims hold that the message of Islam ... submission to the will of the one God ... is the same as the message preached by all the messengers sent by God to humanity since Adam. From a Muslim point of view Islam is the oldest of the monotheistic religions because it represents both the original and the final revelation of God to Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad. [7] [8]. Members of all sects of the Muslim faith believe that the Qur'an codifies the direct words of God.
Islamic texts depict Judaism and Christianity as prophetic successor traditions to the teachings of Abraham. The Qur'an calls Jews and Christians "people of the Book," and distinguishes them from "polytheists". In order to reconcile discrepancies between the earlier prophets and the Qur'an, Muslims contend that Jews and Christians forgot or distorted the word of God after it was revealed to them. The majority of early, and some modern, Muslim scholars believe it was just distortion in the interpretation shown in the Bible. However, others believe that there was also textual distortion, that Jews changed the Tawrat (Torah), and Christians the Injil (Gospels) by altering the meaning, form and placement of words in their respective holy texts. [9] [10]).
God
The fundamental concept in Islam is the Oneness of God or tawhīd: monotheism which is absolute, not relative or pluralistic. The Oneness of God is the first pillar of Islam's five pillars which is also called the "Shahādatān" (The two testimonies). By declaring the two testimonies, a Muslim attests to the belief that there are no gods but God (Allāh), and that Muhammad is God's messenger.
God is described in Sura al-Ikhlas as: "...God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him." Qur'an 112:1-4
In Arabic, God is called Allāh. The word is etymologically connected to ʾilāh "deity".[11] A common misconception is that Muslims consider Allāh to be a different deity than that worshipped by Christians and Jews. However, Allah is simply the Arabic word for "God". The word predates Muhammad and, at least in origin, does not specify "a god" different from the one worshipped by Judaism and Christianity, the other Abrahamic religions. Allāh is also used by Arab speaking Christian and Jewish people to refer to God as they worship him.
The implicit usage of the definite article in Allah linguistically indicates the divine unity. Muslims believe that the God they worship is the same God of Abraham. Muslims reject the Christian doctrine concerning the trinity of God, seeing it as akin to polytheism.
No Muslim visual images or depictions of God are meant to exist because such artistic depictions may lead to idolatry. Moreover, most Muslims believe that God is incorporeal, making any two- or three- dimensional depictions impossible. Such aniconism can also be found in Jewish and some Christian theology. Instead, Muslims describe God by the names and attributes that he revealed to his creation. All but one Sura (chapter) of the Qur'an begins with the phrase "In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful".

Qur'an
The Qur'an is considered by Muslims to be the literal, undistorted word of God, and is the central religious text of Islam. It has also been called, in English, "the Koran" and (archaically) "the Alcoran". Qur'an means “recitation”. Although the Qur'an is referred to as a "book", when Muslims refer in the abstract to "the Qur'an," they are usually referring to the scripture as recited in Arabic -- the words themselves -- rather than to the printed work or any translation of it.
Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the Angel Gabriel on numerous occasions between the years 610 and up till his death on July 6, 632. Modern Western historians have concluded that Muhammad was sincere in his claim of receiving revelation, "for this alone makes credible the development of a great religion." [12] Modern historians generally decline to address the further question of whether the messages Muhammad reported being revealed to him were from "his unconscious, the collective unconscious functioning in him, or from some divine source", but they acknowledge that the material came from "beyond his conscious mind" [12]
Western modern academics generally reject the notion that the Qur'an of today is markedly different from the words Muhammad claimed to have been revealed to him. In fact, the source of ambiguity in the quest for historical Muhammad is more the lack of knowledge about the pre-Islamic Arabia. [13] To interpret the Qu'ran, Muslims use a form of exegesis known as tafsir.
Most Muslims regard paper copies of the Qur'an with veneration, washing as for prayers before reading the Qur'an. Old Qur'ans are not destroyed as wastepaper, but burned.
Many Muslims memorize at least some portion of the Qur'an in the original language (i.e. Arabic), at least the verses needed to recite prayers. Those who have memorized the entire Qur'an are known as hāfiz (plural huffāz). Muslims believe that the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic. Translations, they maintain, are the result of human effort, and are deficient because of differences in human languages, because of the human fallibility of translators, and (not least) because any translation lacks the inspired content found in the original. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself. Many modern, printed versions of the Qur'an feature the Arabic text on one page, and a vernacular translation on the facing page.

Muhammad
Muhammad, also Mohammed, Mohamet, and other variants[14][15] was an Arab religious and political leader who established Islam and the Muslim community (Ummah) to whom he preached. He is considered the greatest prophet in Islam, and is venerated and honoured as such. Muslims do not regard him as the founder of a new religion, but rather believe him to be the last in a line of prophets of God and regard his mission as one of restoring the original monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham and other prophets of Islam that had become corrupted by man over time.[16] [17] [18]
For the last 23 years of his life, beginning at age 40, Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God delivered through the angel Gabriel. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an,[19] was memorized and recorded by his followers. These memories and recordings were then compiled into a single volume shortly after his death.
All Muslims believe that Muhammad was sinless in the sense of transmitting the revelation:
"And if the apostle were to invent any sayings in Our name, We should certainly seize him by his right hand, And We should certainly then cut off the artery of his heart: Nor could any of you withhold him (from Our wrath)." Qur'an 69:44-47
The understanding that Muhammad did commit sin does exist among Sunnis. However, the doctrine of sinlessness of Muhammad is also more or less incorporated into Sunnis' beliefs. Some Sunni scholars believe that the doctrine of the sinlessness of the Prophets originated with the Shi'a, specifically in connection with the Imamat, and was transmitted to the Sunnis via the Sufis and Mu'tazila.[20] Shia scholars disagree.[21]

Sunnah
Sunnah literally means “trodden path” and it refers, in common usage, to the normative example of Muhammad, as recorded in traditions(hadith) about his speech, his actions, his acquiescence to the words and actions of others, and his personal characteristics.[22] According to some opinions, Sunnah is the tradition of Abraham’s religion which Muhammad instituted among his followers as religion after reviving and reforming it and after making certain additions to(16:123).[23]
The close identification of Sunnah with Muhammad and authentic hadith reports originating with the Companions of Muhammad started from the ninth century. Earlier sources, however, reflect a more flexible use of term. In the beginning, actions conducted by four caliphs were also considered to be Sunnah. This concept perpetuated in Shi'a Islam in which, Shi'ite imams are also a source of Sunnah. Malik ibn Anas, author of Al-Muwatta, the earliest extant manual of Islamic law, appeals to Sunnah but treats the existing practice of Muslims of Medina as a more reliable source of that Sunnah than hadith.[24]
During Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i's times, these flexible concepts of Sunnah were challenged. Ash-Shafi`i challenged other groups in his times and insisted Sunnah can only be known from reliable hadith reports. He also championed the traditionalist argument that Sunnah is equivalent to revelation of God.[24] From the tenth century onward, the canonical collections of hadith, especially the collections of Bukhari and Muslim, became vitually synonymous with Sunnah, exerting a profound and pervasive impact on Islamic culture.[25]
Sunnah is the biggest point of contention among contemporary Muslims. Qur'an only Muslims reject Sunnah altogether, while revivalists like Maududi differentiate between Muhammad's action as a prophet and as a normal human.[25]

Hadith
Hadith are traditions relating to the words and deeds of Muhammad. Hadith collections are regarded as important tools for determining the Sunnah, or Muslim way of life, by all traditional schools of jurisprudence. A hadith was originally an oral tradition relevant to the actions and customs of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Starting the first Islamic civil war of the 7th century, those receiving the hadith started to question the sources of the saying [26]. This resulted in a chain of transmission, for example "A told me that B told him that Muhammad said". The hadith were eventually recorded in written form, had their chain of transmission recorded and were collected into large collections mostly during the reign of Umar II during 8th century, something that solidified in the 9th century. These works are still today referred to in matters of Islamic law and history.
Western academics view the hadith collections with caution as historical sources. Bernard Lewis states that "the collection and scrutiny of Hadiths didn't take place until several generations" after Muhammad's death and that "during that period the opportunities and motives for falsification were almost unlimited." In addition to the problem of oral transmission for over a hundred years, there existed motives for deliberate distortion. Early Muslim scholars were also concerned that hadiths may have been fabricated and thus developed a whole science of criticism to distinguish between genuine sayings and those that were errors or frauds. Modern historians point out that a chain of authorities may be easily forged and that rejection of some relators implies the victory of one thought over the others. [27] [28]
Hadith is considered an authoritative source of revelation, second only to the Qur'an.[29] In Islamic jurisprudence, the Qur'an contains many rules for the behavior expected of Muslims. However, there are many matters of concern, both religious and practical, on which there are no specific Qur'anic rules. Muslims believe that they can look at the way of life, or sunnah, of Muhammad and his companions to discover what to imitate and what to avoid. Muslim scholars also find it useful to know how Muhammad or his companions explained the revelations, or upon what occasion Muhammad received them. Sometimes this will clarify a passage that otherwise seems obscure. Hadith are a source for Islamic history and biography. For the vast majority of devout Muslims, authentic hadith are also a source of religious inspiration. However, some contemporary Muslims argue that the Qur'an alone is sufficient.

Afterlife
Qiyamah is the Muslim equivalent of the Christian belief in the Last Judgement. Belief in Qiyâmah is part of Aqidah and is a fundamental tenet of faith in Islam. The trials and tribulations of Qiyâmah are explained in both the Qur'an and the Hadith, as well as in the commentaries of the Islamic scholars such as al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, Ibn Majah, Muhammad al-Bukhari, and Ibn Khuzaimah, who explain them in detail.
Muslims believe that Allah will hold every human, Muslim and non-Muslim alike, accountable for his or her deeds(74:38) at a preordained time unknown to man. The archangel Israfil, referred to as the Caller, will sound a horn sending out a "Blast of Truth". This event is also found in Jewish eschatology, in the Jewish belief of "The Day of the Blowing of the Shofar", Yom Terua. Traditions say Muhammad will be the first to be brought back to life.[30]
Bodily resurrection is much insisted upon in the Qur'an, which challenges the Pre-Islamic Arabian concept of death.[31] Resurrection is followed by judgement of all souls. According to the Qur'an, sins that can consign someone to hell include lying, dishonesty, corruption, ignoring God or God's revelations, denying the resurrection, refusing to feed the poor, indulgence in opulence and ostentation, the economic exploitation of others, and social oppression.[32]
The punishments includes adhab, "pain or torment inflicted by way of chastiment; punishment", a very painful punishment (see 2:178); khizy, "shame, disgrace, ignominy" (16:27, 11:39). The punishment is in Qur'an contrasted not with release but with mercy (29:21, 2:284, 3:129, etc) [33]

Five Pillars of Islam
The Five Pillars of Islam is the term given to what are understood among many Muslims to be the five core aspects of Sunni Islam. Shi'a Muslims accept the Five Pillars, but also add several other practices to form the Branches of Religion.

Shahadah
The basic creed or tenet of Islam is found in the shahādatān ("two testimonies"): 'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh; "I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God."[34] As the most important pillar, this testament can be considered a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Ideally, it is the first words a new-born will hear, and children are taught to recite and understand the shahadah as soon as they are able to. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims must use the creed to formally convert to Islam.[35]

Salat
The second pillar of Islam is salat, the requirement to pray five times a day at fixed times. [36] [37] Each salat is performed facing towards the Kaba in Mecca. [36] However, in the early days of Islam prior to the hijra and until the beginning of the seventh month after hijra Muslims offered salat facing towards Jerusalem. [38] Salat is intended to focus the mind on God; it is a personal communication with God, expressing gratitude and worship.[36] According to the Qur'an (29:40) the benefit of prayer "restrains [one] from shameful and evil deeds"[37]. Salat is compulsory but there are flexibilities under certain circumstances. [39] For example in the case of sickness or lack of space, a worshipper can offer salat while sitting or even lying, and the prayer can be shortened when travelling. [39]
The salat must be performed in the Arabic language to the best of each worshipper's ability (although the du'a afterwards need not be in Arabic), and the lines are to be recited by heart, although beginners may use written aids. The worshipper's body and clothing, as well as the place of prayer, must be cleansed. [39] All salat should be conducted within the prescribed time period or waqt and with the appropriate number of raka'ah. While prayers may be made at any point within the waqt, it is considered best to begin them as soon as possible after the call to prayer is heard. Timing of each prayer is determined by the movement of the sun.

Zakat
Zakat, or alms-giving, is giving charity to the poor and needy by able Muslims, based on the wealth that one has accumulated. It is a personal responsibility intended to ease economic hardship for others and eliminate inequality.[40] It consists spending a fixed portion of one's wealth for the poor or needy, including people whose hearts need to be reconciled, slaves, those in "debt," those in the way of God, and the travelers in the society. A Muslim may also donate an additional amount as an act of voluntary charity (sadaqah), in order to achieve additional divine reward.
There are two main types of zakât, zakât on traffic, which is a per head payment equivalent to cost of around 2.25 kilograms of the main food of the region paid during the month of Ramadan by the head of a family for himself and his dependents, and zakât on wealth, which covers money made in business, savings, income, crops, livestock, gold, minerals, hidden treasures unearthed, and so on.
The payment of zakât is obligatory on all Muslims. In current usage it is interpreted as a 2.5% levy on most valuables and savings held for a full lunar year, if the total value is more than a basic minimum known as nisab (3 ounces or 87.48g of gold). At present (as of 5 October 2006), nisab is approximately US $1,725 or an equivalent amount in any other currency.[41]

Sawm
Sawm, or fasting, is an obligatory act during the month of Ramadan. Muslims must abstain from food, drink, and sexual intercourse from dawn to dusk during this month, and are to be especially mindful of other sins that are prohibited. This activity is intended to allow Muslims to seek nearness to God as well as remind them of the needy. During Ramadan, Muslims are also expected to put more effort into following the teachings of Islam by refraining from violence, anger, envy, greed, lust, angry/sarcastic retorts, gossip, and are meant to try to get along with each other better than normal. All obscene and irreligious sights and sounds are to be avoided. The fast is an exacting act of deeply personal worship in which Muslims seek a raised level of closeness to God. The act of fasting is said to redirect the heart away from worldly activities and its purpose being to cleanse your inner soul, and free it of harm.
Fasting during Ramadan is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would be excessively problematic. Children before the onset of puberty are not required to fast, though some do. Also some small children fast for half a day instead of a whole day so they get used to fasting. However, if puberty is delayed, fasting becomes obligatory for males and females after a certain age. According to Qur'an, if fasting would be dangerous to people's health, such as to people with an illness or medical condition, and sometimes elderly people, they are excused. For example, diabetics and nursing or pregnant women usually are not expected to fast. According to hadith, observing the Ramadan fast is not allowed for menstruating women. Other individuals for whom it is usually considered acceptable not to fast are those in battle, and travelers who intended to spend fewer than five days away from home. If one's condition preventing fasting is only temporary, one is required to make up for the days missed after the month of Ramadan is over and before the next Ramadan arrives. If one's condition is permanent or present for an extended amount of time, one may make up for the fast by feeding a needy person for every day missed.[42]

Hajj
The Hajj is a pilgrimage that occurs during the month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford to do so is obliged to make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. Mecca is so important because it was the place where the Islamic prophet Muhammad was said to have lived and gained his prophet status. The government of Saudi Arabia issues special visas to foreigners for the purpose of the pilgrimage, which takes place during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah. Entrance to Mecca itself is forbidden to non-Muslims, and the entire city is considered a holy site to Islam.
The pilgrim, the hajj, is honoured in his or her community. For some, this is an incentive to perform the Hajj. Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to God, not a means to gain social standing. The believer should be self-aware and examine his or her intentions in performing the pilgrimage. This should lead to constant striving for self-improvement.[43]

Theology and law
The sharia (Arabic for "well-trodden path") is Islamic law, as shown by traditional Islamic scholarship. The Qur'an is the foremost source of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh). The second source is the sunnah of Muhammad and the early Muslim community, which clarifies pomits that are vague in the Qu'ran. The role of hadith is a disputed one in Islamic law. According to a few scholars, such as Imam Shafi'i, it is secondary to the Qur'an, whereas others, such as Imam Malik and the Hanafi scholars, hold it in subjugation to sunnah and often reject a hadith if it goes against established practices. Ijma (consensus of the community of Muslims) and qiyas (analogical reasoning) are generally regarded as the third and fourth sources of Sharia, but have been contested by some scholars.
Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from broad topics of governance and foreign relations all the way down to issues of daily living. Islamic laws that were covered expressly in the Qur’an were referred to as hudud laws and include specifically the five crimes of theft, highway robbery, intoxication, adultery and falsely accusing another of adultery, each of which has a prescribed "hadd" punishment that cannot be forgone or mitigated. The Qur'an also details laws of inheritance, marriage, restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer. However, the prescriptions and prohibitions may be broad, so how they are applied in practice varies. Islamic scholars, the ulema], have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these broad rules, supplemented by the hadith reports of how Muhammad and his companions interpreted them.
In current times, as Islam has spread to non Arabic speaking countries such as Iran, Indonesia, Great Britain, and the United States, not all Muslims understand the Qur'an in its original Arabic. Thus, when Muslims are divided in how to handle situations, they seek the assistance of a mufti (Islamic judge) who can offer them advice based on the sharia and hadith.
Fiqh is the Islamic term for Islamic jurisprudence. It is regarded as an expansion of the divine law or sharia, complemented by the rulings (fatwa) of Islamic jurists (ulema) to direct the lives of Muslims. The modus operandi of the Muslim jurist is usul al-fiqh.

Organization

Mosques
A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims. Muslims often refer to the mosque by its Arabic name, masjid. The word "mosque" in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated for Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (masjid jami) (Arabic: جامع), which has more community and social amenities. The primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer. Nevertheless, mosques are also for their importance to the Muslim community as meeting place and a place of study. They have developed significantly from the open-air spaces that were the Quba Mosque and Masjid al-Nabawi in the seventh century. Today, most mosques have elaborate domes, minarets, and prayer halls, demonstrating Islamic architecture.
According to Islamic beliefs, the first mosque in the world was the Kaaba, which was built by Abraham upon an order from God. When Muhammad lived in Mecca, he viewed Kaaba as his first and principal mosque and performed prayers there together with his followers. Even during times when the pagan Arabs performed their rituals inside the Kaaba, Muhammad held the Kaaba in very high esteem. When Muhammad conquered Mecca in 630, he converted the Kaaba into a mosque, which has since become known as the Masjid al-Haram, or Sacred Mosque. The Masjid al-Haram was significantly expanded and improved in the early centuries of Islam in order to accommodate the increasing number of Muslims who either lived in the area or made the annual Hajj, or pilgrimage, to Mecca, before it acquired its present shape in 1577 in the reign of the Ottoman sultan Selim II.[44]
The first thing Muhammad did upon arriving with his followers near Medina (then named Yathrib) after the emigration from Mecca in 622 was build the Quba Mosque in a village outside Medina.[45] Today, the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, the Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina and Al Aqsa (for the majority of Muslims) in Jerusalem are considered the three holiest sites in Islam.[46]

Islamic calendar
The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar (Arabic: التقويم الهجري; at-taqwīm al-hijrī; Persian: تقویم هجری قمری Gāhshomāri-ye Hejri; also called the Hijri calendar) is the calendar used to date events in many predominantly Muslim countries, and used by Muslims everywhere to determine the proper day on which to celebrate Islamic holy days. It is a lunar calendar having 12 lunar months in a year of about 354 days. Because this lunar year is about 11 days shorter than the solar year, Islamic holy days, although celebrated on fixed dates in their own calendar, usually shift 11 days earlier each successive solar year, such as a year of the Gregorian calendar. Islamic years are also called Hijra years because the first year was the year during which the Hijra occurred— Muhammad's emigration from Mecca to Medina. Thus each numbered year is designated either H or AH, the latter being the initials of the Latin anno Hegirae (in the year of the Hijra).
The Islamic months are named as follows:
1. Muharram محرّم (long form: Muharram ul Haram)
2. Safar صفر (long form: Safar ul Muzaffar)
3. Rabi' al-awwal (Rabi' I) ربيع الأول
4. Rabi' al-thani (or Rabi' al Sani, or Rabi' al-Akhir) (Rabi' II) ربيع الآخر أو ربيع الثاني
5. Jumada al-awwal (Jumada I) جمادى الأول
6. Jumada al-thani (or Jumada al-akhir) (Jumaada II) جمادى الآخر أو جمادى الثاني
7. Rajab رجب (long form: Rajab al Murajab)
8. Sha'aban شعبان (long form: Sha'aban ul Moazam)
9. Ramadan رمضان (or Ramzan, long form: Ramadan ul Mubarak)
10. Shawwal شوّال (long form: Shawwal ul Mukarram)
11. Dhu al-Qi'dah ذو القعدة
12. Dhu al-Hijjah ذو الحجة
Of all the months in the Islamic calendar, Ramadan is the most sacred. Between dawn and sunset, Muslims abstain from eating, drinking, and sexual intercourse in accordance with the Ramadan holiday that lasts throughout the entire month of the same name.
For a very rough conversion, multiply the Islamic year number by 0.97, and then add 622 to get the Gregorian year number.
The Islamic calendar year of 1429 will occur entirely within the Gregorian calendar year of 2008. Such years occur once every 33 or 34 Islamic years (32 or 33 Gregorian years). The current Islamic Year is 1427.
Customs and behavioral laws
Practitioners of Islam are generally taught to follow some specific customs in their daily lives. Most of these customs can be traced back to Abrahamic traditions in Pre-Islamic Arabian society.[47] Due to Muhammad's sanction or tacit approval of such practices, these customs are considered to be Sunnah (practices of Muhammad as part of the religion) by the Ummah(Muslim nation). It includes customs like saying Bismillah (in the name of God) before eating and drinking[48] and then using the right hand for the purpose,[49] saying As-Salamu Alaykum (peace be upon you) when meeting someone and answering with Wa alaykumus-Salam (and peace be upon you),[50] saying Alhamdulillah (all gratitude is for only Allah) when sneezing and responding with Yarhamukallah (God have mercy on you),[51] and similarly saying the Adhan (prayer call) in the right ear of a newborn and the Iqama in his/her left. In the sphere of hygiene, it includes clipping the moustache, shaving the pubes, removing underarm hair, cutting nails, and circumcising the male offspring;[52][53] cleaning the nostrils, the mouth, and the teeth;[54] cleaning the body after urination and defecation,[55] and also abstention from sexual relations during the menstrual cycle and the puerperal discharge,[56] a ceremonial bath after the menstrual cycle, puerperal discharge, and Janabah (seminal/ovular discharge or sexual intercourse).[57] Burial rituals include the funeral prayer[58] of the bathed[59] and enshrouded dead body in coffin cloth[60] and burying it in a grave. Festivals sanctioned by Sunnah are Eid ul-Fitr and Eid ul-Adha, which are celebrated on the 1st of Shawwal and the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah [61] respectively.[62]
Muslims, like Jews, are restricted in their diet. Food prohibitions include swine, blood, meat of dead animals except fish and locusts,[63] and all intoxicants including alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian.[64]

Denominations
There are a number of Islamic religious denominations, each of which have significant theological and legal differences from each other but possess similar essential beliefs. The major schools of thought are Sunni and Shi'a; Sufism is generally considered to be a mystical inflection of Islam rather than a distinct school. According to most sources, present estimates indicate that approximately 85% of the world's Muslims are Sunni and approximately 15% are Shi'a.[65][66]

Sunni
The Sunni are the largest group in Islam. In Arabic, as-Sunnah literally means "principle" or "path." Sunnis and Shi'a believe that Muhammad is a perfect example to follow, and that they must imitate the words and acts of Muhammad as accurately as possible. Because of this reason, the sunnah (practices which Muhammad established in the community) is described as a main pillar of Sunni doctrine, with the place of hadith having been argued by scholars as part of the sunnah.
Sunnis recognize four major legal traditions (madhhabs): Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanafi, and Hanbali. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim might choose any one that he/she finds agreeable to his/her ideas. There are also several orthodox theological or philosophical traditions (kalam). The more recent Salafi movement among Sunnis, adherents of which often refuse to categorize themselves under any single legal tradition, sees itself as restorationist and claims to derive its teachings from the original sources of Islam.

Shi'a
Shi'a Muslims, the second-largest branch, differ from the Sunni in rejecting the authority of the first three caliphs. They honor different accounts of Muhammad (hadith) and have their own legal traditions. The concept of Imamah (leadership) plays a central role in Shi'a doctrine. Shi'a Muslims hold that leadership should not be passed down through a system such as the caliphate, but rather, descendants of Muhammad should be given this right as Imams. Furthermore, they believe that the first Imam, Ali ibn Abu Talib, was explicitly appointed by Muhammad to be his successor.

Sufism
Sufism is a mystical form of Islam followed by some Muslims within both the Sunni and Shi'a sects. Sufis generally believe that following Islamic law or jurisprudence (or fiqh) is only the first step on the path to perfect submission; they focus on the internal or more spiritual aspects of Islam, such as perfecting one's faith and subduing one's own ego (nafs). Most Sufi orders, or tariqas, can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a. However, there are some that are not easily categorized as either Sunni or Shi'a, such as the Bektashi. Sufis are found throughout the Islamic world, from Senegal to Indonesia. Their innovative beliefs and actions often come under criticism from Wahhabis, who consider certain practices to be against the letter of Islamic law.

Others
Another sect which dates back to the early days of Islam is that of the Kharijites. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites are the Ibadi Muslims. Ibadism is distinguished from Shiism by its belief that the Imam (Leader) should be chosen solely on the basis of his faith, not on the basis of descent, and from Sunnism in its rejection of Uthman and Ali and strong emphasis on the need to depose unjust rulers. Ibadi Islam is noted for its strictness, but, unlike the Kharijites proper, Ibadis do not regard major sins as automatically making a Muslim an unbeliever. Most Ibadi Muslims live in Oman.
Another trend in modern Islam is that which is sometimes called progressive. Followers may be called Ijtihadists. They may be either Sunni or Shi'ite, and generally favor the development of personal interpretations of Qur'an and Hadith.
There is also a very small sect isolated within India and Pakistan which identifies themselves as Ahmadi Muslims, who believe in the continuation of prophethood after Muhammad, in contradiction to mainstream Muslims who believe that Muhammad was the final prophet. Although this sect is not accepted as Muslim by mainstream Islamic scholars, they continue to identify themselves with the term Muslim. Likewise, Ahmadis believe that rest of the Muslims who do not share faith with them are non-Muslims.

Islam and other religions
The Qur'an contains both injunctions to respect other religions, and to fight and subdue unbelievers during war. The Qur'an respects Jews and Christians as fellow people of the book (monotheists following Abrahamic religions). The Qur'an however claimed that "it was restoring the pure monotheism of Abraham which had been corrupted in various, not clearly specified, ways by Jews and Christians." [67](the charge of altering the scripture may mean no more than giving false interpretations to some passages, though in later Islam it was taken to mean that parts of the Bible are corrupt. [68])
On the issue of tolerance towards other faiths, one point should be made at the beginning. Until relatively modern times, tolerance in the treatment of non-believers, at least as it is understood in the West after John Locke, was neither valued, nor its absence condemned by both Muslims and Christians. [69] The fair and usual definition of tolerance as understood and applied in pre-modern times was that: "I am in charge. I will allow you some though not all of the rights and privileges that I enjoy, provided that you behave yourself according to rules that I will lay down and enforce." [70]
Traditionally Jews and Christians living in Muslim lands, known as dhimmis were allowed to "practice their religion, subject to certain conditions, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy" and guaranteed their personal safety and security of property, in return for paying tribute to Muslims and acknowledging Muslim supremacy. [71] They had several social and legal disabilities. Many of the disabilities was highly symbolic. The most degrading one was the requirement of distinctive clothing, invented in early medieval Baghdad, though it was highly erratic. [72] However, persecution in the form of violent and active repression was rare and atypical [73] While recognizing the inferior status of dhimmis under Islamic rule, Bernard Lewis, Professor Emeritus of Near Eastern Studies at Princeton University, states that in most respects their position was "very much easier than that of non-Christians or even of heretical Christians in medieval Europe":[74] For example, in contrast, Dhimmis rarely faced martydom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and with certain exceptions they were free in their choice of residence and profession. [75] Most conversions were voluntary and happened for a number of different reasons. However there were forced conversions mostly in the 12th century under the Almohad dynasty of North Africa and al-Andalus as well as in Persia. [76]

History
Islam began in Arabia in the 7th century under the leadership of Muhammad, who united the tribes of Arabia under Islamic law. Muhammed died in 632 without appointing a successor or leaving in place a system for choosing one, according to the majority of Muslims. As a result, the caliphate was established. Caliph is the title for the Islamic leader of the Ummah, or community of Islam. It is a transliterated version of the Arabic word "Khalīfah" which means "successor" or "representative". Muhammad's revelations were soon written down as the Qur'an, which was accepted as a supreme authority, limiting what a caliph could legitimately command. However, the early caliphs believed themselves to be the spiritual and temporal leaders of Islam, and insisted that obedience to the caliph in all things was the hallmark of the good Muslim. The role became strictly temporal however, on the rise of the ulama.
After the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib), the title was claimed by the Umayyads, the Abbasids, and the Ottomans, as well as by other, competing lineages in Spain, Northern Africa, and Egypt. Within a century of his death, an Islamic state stretched from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to central Asia in the east, which, however, was soon torn by civil wars (fitnas). After this, there would always be rival dynasties claiming the caliphate, or leadership of the Muslim world, and many Islamic states or empires offering only token obedience to an increasingly powerless caliph. Most historical Muslim rulers simply titled themselves sultans or amirs, and gave token obedience to a caliph who often had very little real authority. The title has been defunct since the Republic of Turkey abolished the Ottoman caliphate in 1924.
Despite this fragmentation of Islam as a political community, the empires of the Abbasid caliphs, the Mughals, and the Seljuk Turk, Safavid Persia and Ottomans were among the largest and most powerful in the world. Arabs made many Islamic centers of culture and science and produced notable scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, doctors and philosophers during the Golden Age of Islam. Technology flourished; there was much investment in economic infrastructure, such as irrigation systems and canals; stress on the importance of reading the Qur'an produced a comparatively high level of literacy in the general populace.
Islam at its geographical height stretched for thousands of miles. Islamic conquest into Christian Europe spread as far as southern France. After the disastrous defeat of the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, Christian Europe, at the behest of the Pope, launched a series of Crusades and for a time captured Jerusalem. Saladin, however, recaptured Palestine and defeated the Shiite Fatimids.
In the 15th century and 16th centuries three major Muslim empires were created: the Ottoman Empire in much of the Middle East, Balkans and Northern Africa; the Safavid Empire in Iran; and the Mughul Empire in India. These new imperial powers were made possible by the discovery and exploitation of gunpowder, and more efficient administration.[77]
By the end of the 19th century, however all three had declined due to internal conflict and were later destroyed by Western cultural influence and military ambitions. Following World War I, the remnants of the Ottoman Empire were parceled out as European protectorates or spheres of influence. Many Islamic countries have now been formed from these protectorates, such as Iraq, Iran, of Lebanon. Islam and Islamic political power have become much more influential in the 21st century, particularly due to Islamic control of most of the world's oil. Islamicization, the process of the conversion of societies to Islam, originally closely followed the rapid growth of the Arab Empire in the first centuries after Muhammad's death. Muslim dynasties were soon established in North Africa, the Middle East and Persia and the conversion of the population was a protracted process. Although the expansion of Muslim empires eventually slowed, conversion to Islam continued in other ways. Muslim countries dominated trade in the Indian Ocean and the Sahara and it was through trade, Sufi preachers, and interaction with locals that Islam grew in areas such as the Sahel and the East Indies.

Contemporary Islam
Although the most prominent movement in Islam in recent times has been fundamentalist Islamism, there are a number of liberal movements within Islam, which seek alternative ways to align the Islamic faith with contemporary questions.
Early Sharia had a much more flexible character than is currently associated with Islamic jurisprudence, and many modern Muslim scholars believe that it should be renewed, and the classical jurists should lose their special status. This would require formulating a new fiqh suitable for the modern world, e.g. as proposed by advocates of the Islamization of knowledge, and would deal with the modern context. One vehicle proposed for such a change has been the revival of the principle of ijtihad, or independent reasoning by a qualified Islamic scholar, which has lain dormant for centuries.
This movement does not aim to challenge the fundamentals of Islam; rather, it seeks to clear away misinterpretations and to free the way for the renewal of the previous status of the Islamic world as a centre of modern thought and freedom.
Many Muslims counter the claim that only "liberalization" of the Islamic Sharia law can lead to distinguishing between tradition and true Islam by saying that meaningful "fundamentalism", by definition, will eject non-Islamic cultural inventions — for instance, acknowledging and implementing Muhammad's insistence that women have God-given rights that no human being may legally infringe upon. Proponents of modern Islamic philosophy sometimes respond to this by arguing that, as a practical matter, "fundamentalism" in popular discourse about Islam may actually refer, not to core precepts of the faith, but to various systems of cultural traditionalism.
Commonly cited estimates of the Muslim population today range between 900 million and 1.5 billion people (cf. Adherents.com); estimates of Islam by country based on U.S. State Department figures yield a total of 1.48 billion, while the Muslim delegation at the United Nations quoted 1.2 billion as the global Muslim population in September 2005.
Only 18% of Muslims live in the Arab world; 20% are found in Sub-Saharan Africa, about 30% in the South Asian region of Pakistan, India and Bangladesh, and the world's largest single Muslim community (within the bounds of one nation) is in Indonesia. There are also significant Muslim populations in China, Europe, Central Asia, and Russia.

Political and religious extremism
The term Islamism describes a set of political ideologies derived from Islamic fundamentalism.[78] Most Islamist ideologies hold that Islam is not only a religion, but also a political system that governs the legal, economic and social imperatives of the state according to interpretations of Islamic Law.
Islamic extremist terrorism refers to acts of terrorism claimed by its supporters and practitioners to be in furtherance of the goals of Islam. Its prevalence has heavily increased in recent years, and it has become a contentious political issue in many nations.
The validity of an Islamic justification for these acts is contested by some Muslims.[79][80] Islamic extremist violence is not synonymous with all terrorist activities committed by Muslims: nationalists, separatists, and others in the Muslim world often derive inspiration from secular ideologies.[81]

Criticism of Islam
In recent years, Islam has been the subject of criticism and controversy, and is often viewed with considerable negativity in the West.[82] Islam, the Qur'an, and Muhammad, have all been subject to both criticism and vilification, some of which has been dismissed as a product of Islamophobia.[83]
The earliest surviving written criticisms of Islam are to be found in the writings of Christians who came under the early dominion of the Islamic empire. One such Christian was John of Damascus (born c. 676), who was familiar with Islam and Arabic. The second chapter of his book, The Fount of Wisdom, titled 'Concerning Heresies' presents a series of discussions between Christians and Muslims. John claimed a Nestorian monk influenced Muhammad.[84][85]
Some medieval ecclesiastical writers portrayed Muhammad as possessed by Satan, a "precursor of the Antichrist" or the Antichrist himself.[86] Maimonides, one of the foremost rabbinical arbiters and philosophers in Jewish history, saw the relation of Islam to Judaism as primarily theoretical. Maimonides has no quarrel with the strict monotheism of Islam, but finds fault with the practical politics of Muslim regimes. Maimonides criticised what he perceived as the lack of virtue in the way Muslims rule their societies and relate to one another.[87]
Notable modern critics include personalities such as Evangelical leader Pat Robertson, who stated that Islam wants to take over the world, that it is not a religion of peace, that radical Muslims are "satanic", and that Osama Bin Laden was a "true follower of Muhammad".[88][89] Some critics argue that in Islam women have fewer rights than men and that non-Muslims under the dhimmi system have fewer rights than Muslims. According to Freedom House, Saudi Arabia relegates women to second-class citizenship. "Women are not treated as equal members of society. They may not legally drive cars, and their use of public facilities is restricted when men are present. ...Laws discriminate against women in a range of matters including family law, and a woman's testimony is treated as inferior to a man's in court." [90]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam

References
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2. ^ Teece, Geoff (2005). Religion in Focus: Islam. Smart Apple Media, p. 10.
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13. ^ F.E. Peters, The Quest for Historical Muhammad, International Journal of Middle East Studies (1991) p.291-315
14. ^ Mahound, a term used in the past by Christians to vilify Muhammad cf. John Esposito (1999) p.250, meaning 'devil' or 'spirit of darkness', a thoroughly distorted view of Muhammad in the medieval West, cf. Schimmel, Islam: An Introduction, 1992. For some usage of this term in literature see for example William Shakespeare (1832) "Hamlet: And As You Like It." p.80, or Dante who uses this term in his Divine Comedy cf. Bernard Lewis (2002) p.45. William Montgomery Watt states: "Of all the world's great men none has been so much maligned as Muhammad. At one point Muhammad was transformed into Mahound, the prince of darkness." Bernard Lewis states that "The development of the concept of Mahound started with considering Muhammad as a kind of demon or false god worshipped with Apollyon and Termangant in an unholy trinity. Finally after reformation, Muhammad was conceived as a cunning and self-seeking impostor." cf. Lewis (2002) p.45. In recent times Salman Rushdie, in his book "The Satanic verses", chose the name Mahound to refer to Muhammad. Ayatollah Khomeini issued a fatwah that condemned Rushdie to death and called for his execution. cf. John Esposito (1999) p.250
15. ^ Welch, noting the frequency of Muhammad being called as "Al-Amin", a common Arab name, suggests the possibility of "Al-Amin" being Muhammad's given name as it is a masculine form from the same root as his mother's name, A'mina. cf. Encyclopedia of Islam, Muhammad article; The sources frequently say that he, in his youth, was called with the nickname "Al-Amin" meaning "faithful, trustworthy" cf. Carl W. Ernst (2004), p.85
16. ^ John Esposito (1998) p.12; (1999) p.25; (2002) p.4-5
17. ^ Encyclopedia of Islam, Muhammad article
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19. ^ The term Qur'an was invented and first used in the Qur'an itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation, that are discussed in Quran#Etymology cf. Encyclopedia of Islam article on Qur'an.
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25. ^ a b Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world, p.668
26. ^ http://people.uncw.edu/bergh/par246/L21RHadithCriticism.htm
27. ^ The Arabs in History, by Bernard Lewis, p. 33-34
28. ^ F.E. Peters, The Quest for Historical Muhammad, International Journal of Middle East Studies (1991) p.291-315
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30. ^ Esposito(2003), p.264
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41. ^ Zakat calculator. Retrieved on 2006-11-13.
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51. ^ Sahih Bukhari 6224
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55. ^ Sunan Abu Da'ud 45
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71. ^ Lewis (1984), pp. 10, 20
72. ^ Lewis, Bernard. Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice, 1999, W. W. Norton & Company press, ISBN: 0393318397, p.131.
73. ^ Lewis (1984) p. 8,62
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83. ^ Ernst (2002) p. 11
84. ^ The Muslim World, Volume XLI (1951), pages 88-99, [1]
85. ^ De Haeresibus by John of Damascus. See Migne. Patrologia Graeca, vol. 94, 1864, cols 763-73. An English translation by the Reverend John W Voorhis appeared in THE MOSLEM WORLD for October 1954, pp. 392-398.
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2006-11-20T00:03:00.000-08:00

Hinduism
Hinduism (Sanskrit: हिन्दू धर्म, Hindū Dharma, also known as सनातन धर्म, Sanātana Dharma) encompasses many religious beliefs, practices, and denominations. Most Hindus believe in a supreme cosmic spirit called Brahman that is worshipped in many forms, represented by individual deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and Shakti. Hinduism centers around a variety of practices that are meant to help one experience the divinity that is everywhere and realize the true nature of the Self.
Hinduism is the third largest religion in the world, with approximately 1 billion adherents (2005 figure), of whom about 890 million live in India.[1] Other countries with large Hindu populations include Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, United Kingdom, Canada and the United States, with Nepal being the only country with Hinduism as its official religion.
Hinduism is considered to be the oldest living religion in the world.[2][3] Unlike most other major religions, Hinduism has no single founder[4][5] and is based on a number of religious texts developed over many centuries that contain spiritual insights and practical guidance for religious life. Among such texts, the Vedas are the most ancient. Other scriptures include the eighteen Puranas and the epic poems Mahabharata and Ramayana. The Bhagavad Gita, which is contained within the Mahabharata, is a widely studied scripture that summarizes the spiritual teachings of the Vedas.[6]

Core concepts
Modern Hinduism evolved from the ancient Vedic tradition (Vaidika paramparā). Prominent themes in Hinduism include Dharma (individual ethics, duties and obligations), Samsāra (rebirth), Karma (right action), and Moksha (salvation). Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism all share some traits in common with Hinduism, as all these religions originated in India, and all focus on self-improvement with the ultimate aim of attaining personal spiritual experience.

God & the soul

God: both principle and person
Hinduism is sometimes called a polytheistic religion, but strictly speaking, this is not accurate. Hinduism believes in One God, but asserts that the One God can appear to humans in multiple names and forms.[7]

Brahman
According to the monotheistic and pantheistic theologies of Hinduism, God is, in the highest sense, One: beyond form, infinite, and eternal. God is changeless and is the very source of consciousness. God is beyond time, space, and causation and yet permeates everything and every being. God is beyond gender.[8] When God is thought of as this infinite principle, God is called Brahman. Brahman is the Absolute reality: it is pure existence and knowledge. Brahman does not exist; it is existence itself. It is not all-knowing; it is knowledge itself.
However, when human beings try to think of the infinite God, they project the limitations of their finite minds on God. The human mind cannot think other than in human terms. Therefore, it projects human limitations, such as personality, motherhood, and fatherhood on God. According to the Advaita school of thought God does not have any such attributes.[7] However, many consider it helpful to project such attributes on God — the myriad names and forms of God one finds in Hinduism are all ways for humans to approach the divine. Therefore, the Hindu scriptures depict God not only as an abstract principle or concept, but also as a personal being, much like the God in the Judeo-Christian religions.
Despite Hinduism's belief in the abstract principle of Brahman, most Hindus worship God on a day-to-day basis in one of God's less abstract personal forms, such as Vishnu, Shiva, or Shakti. Some Hindus worship these personal forms of God for a practical reason: it is easier to cultivate devotion to a personal being than to an abstract principle. Other Hindus, such as those following the Dvaita traditions, consider the personal forms in themselves to be the highest form of truth and worship God as an infinite and yet personal being.
The Hindu scriptures declare that Brahman (the impersonal God) is beyond description, and can be understood only through direct spiritual experience. Nevertheless, for the benefit of others, the ancient Hindu sages who experienced Brahman attempted to describe their experiences, as recorded in the ancient Vedic texts known as the Upanishads.[9]
Several mahā-vākyas, or great sayings, indicate what the principle of Brahman is:
"Brahman is knowledge", (prajnānam brahma)[10]
"The Self (or the Soul) is Brahman " (ayam ātmā brahma)[11]
"I am Brahman" (aham brahmāsmi)[12]
"You are that" (tat tvam asi),[13]
"All this that we see in the world is Brahman" (sarvam khalv idam brahma),[14]
"Brahman is existence, consciousness, and happiness" (sachchidānanda brahma).[15][16]
Thus, Brahman is conceived of as the very essence of existence and knowledge, which pervades the entire universe, including every living being. The goal of Hinduism is to somehow "wake up," and realize one's own connection to the divine reality that may be called Brahman or God.[17] Because God is everywhere, God is also present within each living being.[18]

Ishvara
When God is thought of as the supreme all-powerful person (rather than as the infinite principle called Brahman), God is called Īśvara or Bhagavān. Īśvara is a word used to refer to the personal aspect of God in general; it is not specific to a particular deity. Īśvara transcends gender, yet can be looked upon as both father and mother, and even as friend, child, or sweetheart.[7] Most Hindus, in their daily devotional practices, worship some form of this personal aspect of God, although they believe in the more abstract concept of Brahman as well. Sometimes this means worshiping God through an image or a picture. Sometimes it just means thinking of God as a personal being.
Depending on which aspect of Īśvara one is talking about, a different name will be used—and frequently a different image or picture. For instance, when God is spoken of as the creator, God is called Brahmā.[19] When spoken of as preserver of the world, God is called Vishnu. When spoken of as destroyer of the world, God is called Shiva.
Many of these individual aspects of God also have other names and images. For example, Krishna and Rama are considered forms of Vishnu. All the various deities and images one finds in Hinduism are considered manifestations of the same God, called Īśvara in the personal aspect and Brahman when referred to as an abstract concept.
In their personal religious practices, Hindus worship primarily one or another of these deities, known as their "ishta devatā," or chosen ideal.[20] The particular form of God worshipped as one's chosen ideal is a matter of individual preference.[21] Regional and family traditions can influence this choice.[22] Hindus may also take guidance about this choice from their scriptures.
Although Hindus may worship deities other than their chosen ideal from time to time as well, depending on the occasion and their personal inclinations, they are not required to worship—or even know about—every form of God. Hindus generally choose one concept of God (e.g., Krishna, Rama, Shiva, or Kali) and cultivate devotion to that chosen form, while at the same time respecting the chosen ideals of other people.[23]

Devas & devis
The Hindu scriptures speak of many individual deities, called devas. Goddesses are called devīs. The various devas and devīs are personifications of various aspects of one and the same God (Ishvara).[24] For instance, when a Hindu thinks of Ishvara as the giver of knowledge and learning, that aspect of Ishvara is personified as the deity Saraswati. In the same manner, Lakshmi personifies Ishvara as the giver of wealth and prosperity.[24] This does not imply that Ishvara is the Lord of all the other deities; Ishvara is just the name used to refer to the personal God in general, when no particular deity is being referred to.
The devas (also called devatās) are an integral part of the colorful Hindu culture. These various forms of God are depicted in innumerable paintings, statues, murals, and scriptural stories that can be found in temples, homes, businesses, and other places. The scriptures recommend that for the satisfaction of a particular material desire a person may worship a particular deity.[25] For example, shopkeepers frequently keep a statue or picture of the devi Lakshmi in their shops. The elephant-headed deva known as Ganesha is worshipped before commencing any undertaking, as he represents God's aspect as the remover of obstacles. Students and scholars may propitiate Saraswati, the devi of learning, prior to an exam or lecture.
The most ancient Vedic devas included Indra, Agni, Soma, Varuna, Mitra, Savitri, Rudra, Prajapati, Vishnu, Aryaman and the Ashvins; important devīs were Sarasvatī, Ūṣā and Prithvī. Later scriptures called the Purānas recount traditional stories about each individual deity.
Vishnu and Shiva are not regarded as ordinary devas but as Mahādevas ("Great Gods" ) because of their central positions in worship and mythology.[26] The Purānas also laud other devas, such as Ganesha and Hanumān, and avatāras such as Rāma and Krishna (see below). Goddesses are worshiped when God is thought of as the Universal Mother. Particular forms of the Universal Mother include Lakshmī, Sarasvatī and Parvatī, Durgā, and Kālī.
Some Hindus consider the various deities not as forms of the one Ishwara, but as independently existing entities, and may thus be properly considered polytheistic.

Avataras (incarnations of God)
Many denominations of Hinduism, such as Vaishnavism and Smartism, teach that from time to time God comes to Earth as a human being to help humans along in their struggle toward enlightenment and salvation (moksha). Such an incarnation of God is called an avatāra. In some respects, the Hindu concept of avatara is similar to the belief found in Christianity that God came to the earth in the form of Jesus. However, whereas most Christians believe that God has assumed a human body on only one occasion, Hinduism teaches that there have been multiple avatars throughout history, and that there will be more in the future. Thus Krishna, an incarnation of God, says:
Whenever righteousness declinesAnd unrighteousness increases,I make myself a body;In every age I come backTo deliver the holy,To destroy the sin of the sinner,To establish righteousness.[27]
The most famous of the divine incarnations are Rama, whose life is depicted in the Ramayana, and Krishna, whose life is depicted in the Mahabharata and the Srimad Bhagavatam. The Bhagavad Gita, which contains the spiritual teachings of Krishna, is one of the most widely-read scriptures in Hinduism.

Ātman
Most Hindu thinkers agree that the spirit or soul, the true "self" of every person, called the ātman, is eternal.[28] It is believed that the Spirit of God and the spirit of man have existed and will continue to exist throughout all eternity. According to schools influenced by the concept of Advaita (non-duality), the human spirit and God's Spirit are not seen as ultimately distinct. They believe that the core spirit, or "Self", of every individual person is identical with God's Spirit.[28] According to the Upanishads, whoever gains insight into the depths of his own nature and becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of his own Self will also realize his identity with Brahman, the divine source of the whole universe, and will thereby reach salvation.[28][29] According to the Dvaita ("dualistic") school, on the other hand (often associated with the Vaishnava tradition), the ātman is not identical with God, although it is dependent on Him, and salvation depends on the cultivation of love for God and on God's grace.[29]

Heaven and hell
The concepts of "Heaven" and "Hell" do not translate directly into Hinduism and reaching heaven is not necessarily considered the ultimate goal. This is because heaven and hell are believed to be temporary.[30] The only thing that is considered eternal is divinity, which includes God as well as the ātman (the soul). Therefore the ultimate goal is to experience divinity.[31]

Hindu scriptures
Hinduism is based on "the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different persons in different times."[32] The scriptures were transmitted orally, in verse form to aid memorization, for many centuries before they were written down.[33] [34] Over many centuries, the teachings of the were refined by other sages, and the canon expanded.
The overwhelming majority of the sacred texts are composed in the Sanskrit language. Indeed, much of the morphology and linguistic philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is sometimes claimed to be inextricably linked to study of the Vedas and relevant Hindu scriptures. Sanskrit continues to be used even today in religious and literary settings.
The scripture are collectively referred to as Shāstra and are commonly classified into two classes: Śruti and Smriti.

Shruti (Vedic literature)
Śruti ("that which has been heard") refers to the Vedas (वेद, "Knowledge") which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures. While they have not been dated with much certainty, even the most conservative estimates date their origin to 1200 B.C. or earlier.[35] [36]
The Vedas are said to be eternal truths that were originally realized through deep meditation by ancient sages called Ṛiṣhis [37]. Hindus do not believe that God or any person created the Vedas; the Vedas are said to be without beginning and without end. "Just as the law of gravitation existed before its discovery and would exist if all humanity forgot it, so is it with the laws that govern the spiritual world."[38] The Vedas have therefore been called apaurusheya ("not man-made").[39]
The Vedas themselves have been classified in various ways. One simple way is to divide the Vedas into two sections according to their subject matter:
1. The Karma Kānda ("the action part"), deals with karma, rituals, and secular topics, the purpose of which is to attain material prosperity and happiness on earth, and
2. The Jnāna Kānda ("the knowledge part"), is concerned with the spiritual knowledge that brings liberation from ignorance and realization of the Ultimate Truth.
The Upaniṣhads constitute a major portion of the Jnāna Kānda,[34] and contain the bulk of the Vedas' philosophical and mystical teachings. The teachings of the Upanishads emphasize several key points (which are interpreted variously by various schools of thought):
1. The deepest source of all reality, called Brahman, is identical with the innermost self of man (ātman).
2. As long as one does not realize this relationship, one is subject to a seemingly endless round of rebirths (sansāra).
3. A conscious realization of the essential identity of the ātman and Brahman leads to liberation from sansāra.[40][41]
While the Vedas are not themselves commonly read by a lay Hindu, they are yet revered as the spiritual foundation for the later, more widely-read scriptures (smriti).
Smriti
Hindu texts other than the Shrutis are collectively called the Smṛitis ("memory"). All of them laud the Vedas and the Shruti is generally held to take precedence over them in any apparent dispute.[42]
The most notable of the Smritis are the Itihāsas (epics), such as the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa, considered sacred by almost all Hindus. Bhagavad Gītā (भगवद् गीता) (often referred to as simply the Gītā) is an integral part of the epic Mahābhārata and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It contains philosophical sermons taught by Kṛiṣhṇa, an incarnation of Viṣhṇu, to the Pāṇḍava prince Arjuna on the eve of a great war. The Bhagavad Gītā is described as the essence of the Vedas.[43]
Also widely known are the eighteen Purāṇas ("ancient histories"), which illustrate Vedic ideas through vivid narratives dealing with deities, and their interactions with humans. Prominent Purāṇas include the Srīmad Bhāgavatam, the Devī Mahātmya (an ode to God as the Divine Mother), the Yoga Sūtras (a key meditative yoga text by the sage Patañjali), the Tantras, and the Manusmṛiti, as well as the Mahanirvāṇa Tantra, Tirumantiram and Shiva Sūtras. Other important Hindu scriptures include the sectarian Hindu Āgamas that dedicated to rituals and worship associated with Viṣhnu, Shiva and Devī.
Most Hindu scriptures, especially the epics and Puranic stories, are not typically interpreted literally and most Hindus attach greater importance to the ethics and the metaphorical meanings derived from them.[44] It is widely understood accepted that the Shastras contain a mix of historical fact, myth, and spiritual truths and that their aim is to highlight deeper spiritual meaning through the stories and teachings. Hindu exegesis often leans toward figurative interpretations of scriptures rather than literal ones.

Many scriptures, many paths
In contrast to the scriptural canons in some other religions, the Hindu scriptural canon is not closed even today — Hindus believe that because the spiritual truths of the Vedas are eternal, they may continue to be expressed in new ways in the future.[45] New scriptures may continue to be written to express the truths of the Vedas in ways that will be accessible to the people of different times and places.[46] However there is a special veneration for the shruti scriptures because they have been validated by many sages and thinkers over the course of many millenia.
Many Hindus may even venerate the scriptures of other religions, since it is believed that the One Divinity can reveal itself in innumerable ways. A much-quoted pada (verse) from the Rigveda that emphasizes the diversity of paths to the one goal is:
ekam sat viprā bahudhā vadanti
Truth is one, the wise call it by many names
—Rig Veda 1.164.46c
Thus, Hinduism accepts a large number of scriptures, and remains open to any new revelations. Because the same eternal spiritual truths can be viewed from innumerable perspectives, there is relatively little theological quarrel among Hindu denominations.[47] However, some denominations may be more inclined toward this all-inclusive attitude than others. For instance, although followers of Advaita Vedanta and Smartism often place heavy emphasis on the view that God can be worshipped in any form, many members of the Vaishnava sect believe that spiritual liberation can be attained only through submission to God in the form of Vishnu.[48]
It is believed that a sage today can realize the same truths that the ancient rishis realized. For this reason, Hindus may venerate the words of a modern saint — Sri Ramakrishna, Sai Baba, or Sri Ramana Maharshi, for example — as much as those of the ancient teachers.

The goal of life (jīvan-lakshya)
The goal of life is stated variously as the realization of one's union with God, attainment of the vision of God, attainment of perfect love of God, realization of the unity of all existence, perfect unselfishness, liberation from ignorance, attainment of perfect mental peace, or detachment from worldly desires. The goal is to have the direct experience of divinity, regardless of precisely how one may choose to define it. The experience of divinity is the only thing that can give one true peace and happiness, and salvation from suffering and ignorance. According to Hindu thought, one does not necessarily have to wait until death to attain salvation — it is possible to achieve it in this very life. One who attains salvation while living is called a jīvan-mukta.[49]

Multiple ways to reach the goal (yoga)
In whatever way a Hindu might define the goal of life—and multiple definitions are allowed—there are several methods (yogas) that have been developed over the centuries for people of different tastes and temperaments. Paths one can follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life include:
Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion),
Karma Yoga (the path of right action),
Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation) and
Jñāna Yoga (the path of knowledge).[7]
An individual, or sect of Hinduism, may prefer one of yogas according to their inclination and understanding, for instance some followers of the Dvaita school hold that Bhakti ("devotion") is the only path to salvation. [citation needed] However, typically, practice of one yoga does not exclude acceptance of the other yogas. [7] [50]

Bhakti Yoga
The bhakti traditions emphasize cultivation of love and devotion for God as the path to perfection. Followers of bhakti ("bhaktas") typically worship God as a divine personal being or avatar, such as Rama or Krishna. Followers of the bhakti path strive to purify their minds and activities through the chanting of God's names (japa), prayer, the singing of hymns (bhajan), and by treating all living creatures with compassion (dayā). Bhaktas seek to enjoy a loving relationship with God, rather than seeking to merge their consciousness with the supreme Brahman as the followers of jnana yoga do.

Karma Yoga

The followers of karma yoga seek to achieve mental equilibrium and perfect unselfishness by performing their duties in the world in a dedicated but mentally detached manner. According to Hinduism, work, which is inevitable, has one great disadvantage. Any work done with attachment to its fruits generates a kind of psychological bondage, or anxiety, in the mind of the worker.[51] Therefore, followers of karma yoga emphasize the following injunction in the Bhagavad Gita:
Do your duty, always; but without attachment. That is how a man reaches the ultimate truth; by working without anxiety about results.[52]
Many followers of karma yoga try to attain mental detachment from the results of their work by mentally offering the results of every action to God, thus combining karma yoga with bhakti yoga. However, it is possible for even an atheist to follow karma yoga by simply remaining mentally detached from the results of his or her work by means of willpower.

Raja Yoga

The followers of Raja yoga seek to realize spiritual truths through meditation. Raja yoga, also known simply as yoga, is based on the Yoga Sutras (aphorisms on yoga) of the sage Patanjali.[53] Through the practice of meditation, followers of this path seek to gradually gain control over their own thoughts and actions, rather than being controlled by their impulses. They seek to attain one-pointed concentration and perfect equanimity of mind.[54] Ultimately, through meditation, the followers of raja yoga seek self-knowledge: by concentrating all the energies of the mind inward, they seek to perceive whether they have souls, "whether life is of five minutes or of eternity, and whether there is a God."[55] Thus, the highest goal of raja yoga is God-realization, or experiencing the Ultimate Truth.[54]
The actual act of sitting down for meditation, however, is only the tip of the iceberg in raja yoga. The disciplines of raja yoga, as taught by Patanjali, consist of eight steps, of which dhyāna (meditation) is only one.[56] Thus according to Patanjali, the eight practices of raja yoga are:
1. Yama: Restraining harmful thoughts and impulses.
2. Niyama: Cultivating good habits.
3. Āsana: Learning proper posture for prolonged meditation.
4. Prānāyama: Control of prana, or life force, through rhythmic breathing exercises.
5. Pratyāhāra: Withdrawing the senses from their objects of enjoyment.
6. Dhāranā: Fixing the mind on the object of contemplation.
7. Dhyāna: Uninterrupted contemplation (meditation).
8. Samādhi: Total absorption of the mind in the object of contemplation.[53][57]
As with the other yogas, raja yoga may be combined with bhakti yoga, karma yoga, or jnana yoga to create a customized path suitable for an individual aspirant. The aspects of raja yoga that deal with physical exercises (especially āsana) are known collectively as hatha yoga. With the increasing popularity of the therapeutic benefits of Hatha Yoga, the sanskrit term Yoga is often interpreted in the narrow sense of Hatha Yoga. However yoga encompasses a broader meaning in Hinduism.[58] [59]

Jnana Yoga

Jnana Yoga has been called the path of rational inquiry, and is prescribed for people to whom reason appeals more than faith.[60] The followers of jnana yoga emphasize a two-step process to help one attain salvation:
(1) Viveka: the practice of discriminating between things that are impermanent (e.g., worldly pleasures) and those that are permanent (e.g., God and the soul), and
(2) Vairāgya, renunciation of unhealthy attachment to things that are impermanent.[49]
For monks (called sanyāsīs or sādhus ) and nuns (sanyāsinīs), renunciation may mean actual physical departure from worldly activities such as marriage and earning money. For the vast majority of people, however, renunciation means mental detachment from selfish desires while continuing to fulfill family and community obligations.[61] By focusing the mind on Divinity instead of the desire for selfish gain, jnana yogis seek to maintain a healthy mental equilibrium in the face of the inevitable highs and lows of life.
According to Hinduism, humans identify themselves with their physical bodies and their egos (the sense of "I" and "mine") due to ignorance (or māyā). These attributes are considered impermanent, and thus ultimately unreal. The true "self" of every person — the only part of a person that is permanent — is the soul, called the atman. Further, it is postulated that the atman of each person is eternally connected to the atman of every other person, with God, and with all existence.
In an analogy attributed to Swami Vivekanand each individual soul is compared to a wave on a shoreless ocean.[62] The ocean is the Infinite Brahman. When a person sees rightly, he comes to understand that each wave is part of the ocean. Similarly, the highest realization that the followers of jnana yoga strive to attain is that all living beings are essentially indistinguishable from the infinite, eternal Brahman.[62]
Jnana yoga is often associated with the Vedanta school of philosophy, although Hindus of the Vedanta school may incorporate elements of bhakti yoga and the other yogas into their spiritual practices as well.

Karma and reincarnation
The doctrine of karma is related to the law of cause and effect. It states that everything that people do (karma) leaves impressions (samskāras) in their mind, which determines what kind of people they will be in the future, and hence their fate. [63] Some Hindus see God's direct involvement in this process, while others consider the natural laws of causation sufficient to explain the effects of karma.[64][65][66]
Some Hindus believe in reincarnation, and to them action in one life can determine the fate in subsequent reincarnations. Virtuous actions take the soul closer to the Supreme Divine and lead to a birth with higher consciousness. Evil actions hinder this recognition of the Supreme Divine, and the soul takes lower forms of worldly life. Thus according to this school of Hindu philosophy, one should try to behave in a virtuous manner, as it impacts current and future lives, Over the course of time, if a person sufficiently purifies the mind and intellect, he or she can attain the goal of life, which is to experience the highest truth or God.[67]
The cycle of birth and death is called samsāra. According to the doctrine of reincarnation, the soul (atman) is immortal, while the body is subject to birth and death. The Bhagavad Gita states that
Worn-out garments are shed by the body; Worn-out bodies are shed by the dweller within the body. New bodies are donned by the dweller, like garments.[68]
Hinduism teaches that the soul goes on repeatedly being born and dying. One is reborn on account of desire: a person desires to be born because he or she wants to enjoy worldly pleasures, which can be enjoyed only through a body.[69] As long as the soul mistakenly identifies itself with the ego (the sense of "I" and "mine", called ahamkāra in Sanskrit), it has worldly desires, which cause it to be reborn again and again.[70]. Hinduism does not teach that all worldly pleasures are sinful, but it does teach that they can never bring deep, lasting happiness or peace (ānanda).
It is thought that after several cycles of birth and rebirths, a person is no longer satisfied with the limited happiness that worldly pleasures bring. At this point, the person seeks higher forms of happiness, which can be attained only through spiritual experience. When, after spiritual practice (sādhanā) the person finally realizes his or her own divine nature - i.e., realizes that the true "self" is the immortal soul rather than the body or the ego — all desires for the pleasures of the world vanish, since they seem insipid compared to spiritual ānanda. This realization breaks the cycle of reincarnation.[71]
When the cycle of rebirth thus comes to an end, a person is said to have attained moksha, or salvation.[72] While all schools of thought agree that moksha implies the cessation of worldly desires and freedom from the cycle of birth and death, the exact definition of salvation depends on individual beliefs. For example, followers of the Advaita Vedanta school (often associated with jnana yoga) believe that they will spend eternity absorbed in the perfect peace and happiness that comes with the realization that all existence is One, and that the immortal soul is part of that existence. Thus they will no longer identify themselves as individual persons, but will see the "Self" (ātman) as a part of the infinite ocean of Divinity (Brahman). The followers of dualistic schools, on the other hand, expect to spend eternity in a loka, or heaven, where they will have the blessed company of their chosen form of God (some form of Ishvara) throughout eternity. The two schools are not necessarily contradictory, however. A follower of one school may believe that both types of salvation are possible, but will simply have a personal preference to experience one or the other. Thus, it is said, the followers of Dvaita wish to "taste sugar," while the followers of Advaita wish to "become sugar."[73]

Practices
All Hindu practices seek to accomplish a single purpose: increasing a person's awareness of the divinity that is present everywhere and in everything. Therefore, Hinduism has developed numerous practices meant to help one think of divinity even in the midst of everyday life. The more a devotee can think holy thoughts, the sooner he or she can purify his or her mind, which is the way to salvation. According to one teacher:
The ideal of man is to see God in everything. But if you cannot see Him in everything, see Him in one thing, in that thing you like best, and then see Him in another. So on you go. . . . Take your time and you will achieve your end.[74]

Pūjā (worship)
Most observant Hindus engage in some type of formal worship (pūjā) both in the home and in temples. In the home, Hindus usually have a special place that is used as a shrine, and which contains a picture or statue symbolizing the individual's chosen form(s) of God (ishta). Typically a devotee enters the shrine at dawn and at dusk to make an offering to God, symbolized by placing items such as food, water, and flowers before the image, waving incense, lighting candles or oil-lamps (diya), ringing a bell, and/or waving a fan. The devotee thus symbolically offers to God items that can be enjoyed by each of the five senses. Other practices in the home include meditation (dhyāna), the chanting of God's name or names (japa), and the recitation of scriptures such as the Bhagavad Gita.
Before performing pūjā, the devotee usually bathes and wears washed clothes. Women customarily do not engage in pūjā during the first four days of menstruation. It is also customary for Hindus not to perform pūjā for a month after birth of a child (vṛddhi sūtak) or during the first sixteen days after the death of a family member (mritaka-sūtak). These periods are explained as resulting from a temporary state of ritual impurity (ashaucha).[75]
Visiting temples is not obligatory for Hindus.[76] Many Hindus go to temples only during religious festivals. Temples are not used for weddings, funerals, or as social hubs—they are primarily used for formal worship. Sometimes worship in temples is accompanied by devotional singing (kīrtana) and religious discourse. Hindu temple priests (pandās) are salaried workers, hired by temple authorities to perform ritualistic worship. They are not to be confused with swāmīs or sanyāsins (all-renouncing monks, who do not work for salary).[76]
Priests begin to perform temple worship at daybreak, and continue with various rituals until late in the evening. During the worship the priest makes various offerings to God, such as food, drink, flowers, and perfume as a token of love, sacrifice and devotion. Often, devotees bring their own offerings to the temple, or purchase them from nearby vendors. Food offerings are called "Naivedhya". The priest takes the offering from the devotees and presents it to God on their behalf. Food that has been offered to God is considered to be sanctified (prasāda), and is generally distributed to the devotees, wandering monks or nuns, or the poor. Accepting prasāda is considered spiritually beneficial.[77]
Besides home and temple worship, observant Hindus are supposed to perform every action as an offering to God as prescribed by karma yoga.

Worship of God through images

Hindus worship God through images (murti), such as statues or paintings, which are symbols of God's power and glory. Through such tangible symbols a Hindu tries to establish contact with the intangible God and the image, which is a symbol, acts like a link between God and His worshipper.[78]
According to another view, it is not incorrect to think that God is in the image because God is everywhere. Thus the Padma Purana states that the mūrti is not to be thought of as mere stone or wood but as the manifest form of the Divinity.[79]
Although most mūrtis are more or less anthropomorphic, the deity Shiva is worshipped symbolically in the form of a pillar-like stone called a lingam.
A few Hindu denominations, such as the Arya Samaj, do not believe in worshipping God through images.

The guru-disciple tradition
In many Hindu denominations, spiritual aspirants are encouraged to have a personal spiritual teacher, called a guru. The student is expected to follow the instructions of the guru and to sincerely strive to reach the goal of spiritual life. Gurus may teach to each student a special mantra, which is a name of God, a holy phrase, or other sacred words, which the student repeats to himself or herself daily at dawn and dusk, and as much as possible at other times. The chanting of a mantra is called japa (see below). Japa is meant to increase remembrance of God and to elevate the mind so that it will become purer and able to experience God. A guru may also give a student instructions in meditation and other practices.
According to many systems of belief, a guru must never charge any money for the guidance that he or she gives, although a student may give voluntary gifts to the teacher as a token of appreciation (guru-dakshinā).

Japa and Mantra
Mantras are chanted, through their meaning, sound, and chanting style, to help a person focus the mind on holy thoughts or to express love and devotion for God. Mantras often give courage in exigent times and serve to help invoke one's inner spiritual strength. Indeed, Mahatma Gandhi's dying words are said to have been a two-word mantra to the Lord Rama: "Hé Ram!"[citation needed]
One of the most revered mantras in Hinduism is the Gayatri Mantra. In India including Kashmir, Brahmins are initiated into this most sacred mantra at the time of their Yajñopavit (thread ceremony). Many Hindus to this day, in a tradition that has continued unbroken from ancient times, perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river while chanting the Gayatri and Mahamrityunjaya mantras.
Japa has been extolled as the greatest dharma for the Kali Yuga, in the Mahabharat.

Pilgrimage
Pilgrimage is not mandatory in Hinduism as it is in Islam. Nevertheless, many Hindus who can afford to do so undertake one or more pilgrimages during their lifetimes. There are many Hindu holy places (tīrtha-sthānas) in India. One of the most famous is the ancient city of Varanasi, otherwise known as Benaras or Kashi. Other holy places in India include Kedarnath and Badrinath in the Himalayas, the Jagannath temple at Puri, Rishikesh and Haridwar in the foothills of the Himalayas, Allahabad (also known by the ancient name Prayāg, located at the confluence of multiple holy rivers), Rameshwaram in the South and Gaya in the east. The largest single gathering of pilgrims is during the annual Kumbh Mela fair held in one of four different cities on a rotating basis. After visiting the Kumbh mela of 1895, Mark Twain wrote:
"It is wonderful, the power of a faith like that, that can make multitudes upon multitudes of the old and weak and the young and frail enter without hesitation or complaint upon such incredible journeys and endure the resultant miseries without repining. It is done in love, or it is done in fear; I do not know which it is. No matter what the impulse is, the act born of it is beyond imagination marvelous to our kind of people, the cold whites." [80]

Satsang
Satsang is the practice of gathering for study or discussion of scripture and religious topics, or chanting of hymns. In Sanskrit, Satsang means circle, or, fellowship ('sangha') with truth ('sat'). People may gather under guidance of a sage, a priest, or a singer. This practice is sometimes called sādhu-sangha." [81]

Devotional singing
Devotional singing, called bhajan or kirtan, is an important part of worship in many denominations. Devotional singing may take place in temples, in ashrams, on the banks of holy rivers, in the home, or elsewhere. Hymns may be in the ancient Sanskrit language, or in modern languages such as Hindi, Bengali, or Tamil. Musical instruments accompanying devotional singing frequently include the manjeera, tanpura, harmonium, and tabla.

Denominations
Many Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination at all.[82] However, scholars frequently categorize contemporary Hinduism into three or four major denominations: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and sometimes Smartism or Advaita Vedanta. These denominations differ primarily in the particular forms of God worshipped, and in the rituals and traditions that accompany worship of that form of God. Vaishnavism worships God in the form of Viṣhṇu; Shaivism worships God as Shiva; Shaktism worships a female divinity or Goddess, Devī; while Smartism and Advaita Vedanta believe in an impersonal or pantheistic God without focusing on any particular form of God.
There are also many movements that are not easily placed in any of the above categories, such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati's Ārya Samāj, which condemns image worship and veneration of multiple deities, focusing instead on the Vedas and the Vedic fire sacrifices (yajña). Traditions such as the Ramakrishna movement incorporate elements from all the major denominations and stress that God-realization can be achieved through any denomination so long as it is followed sincerely. In Tantra, the Goddess is considered the power of Shiva, and thus represents a combination of the Shaiva and shākta denominations.
As in every religion, some people view their own denomination as superior to others. In Hinduism, however, many Hindus consider other denominations to be legitimate alternatives to their own. The concept of heresy found in some other religions is therefore generally not an issue for Hindus.

History

Origins
The earliest evidence for elements of the Hindu faith is sometimes claimed to date back as far as the late Neolithic, to the Early Harappan period (ca. 5500–3300 BCE)[83].
The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (ca. 1500-500 BCE) are often called the "Vedic religion." The oldest surviving textual document of Hinduism is the Rigveda, dated to between 1700–1100 BCE, based on linguistic and philological evidence.[84]

The Vedic period
Modern Hinduism grew out of the knowledge described in the Vedas. The earliest of these, the Rigveda, centers on worship of deities such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. The early Indo-Aryans would perform fire-sacrifices, called yajña (यज्ञ), with the chanting of the Vedic mantras, but they built no temples, idols or icons. Probably animals were also sacrificed in larger yajñas, as claimed by Buddhist and Jain texts. The most ancient Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to Zoroastrianism, as well as to other Indo-European religions.[85]

The influence of Buddhism & Jainism
The religions of Buddhism and Jainism arose in North India in the sixth century B.C.[86] The Buddha accepted many tenets of Hinduism, but taught that to achieve salvation one did not have to accept the authority of the scriptures, the caste system, or even the existence of God.[87] Many Hindus converted to Buddhism, and even many of those who did not convert were influenced by Buddhist teachings. Both Buddhism and Jainism influenced Hinduism with their emphasis on compassion for all life.

Epic & Puranic periods
The epic poems Ramayana and Mahabharata were written roughly 400 B.C. to A.D. 200, although they were probably transmitted orally for many years prior to this period.[88] These epics contain both secular and mythological stories of the rulers and wars of ancient India, as well as stories about the avataras Rama and Krishna. The later Puranas recount tales about various Gods and Goddesses, their interactions with humans, and their battles against demons. The Gupta dynasty (c. A.D. 300-500) is associated with a proliferation of ornate art and extensive literature in the Sanskrit and Tamil languages.[86]

Islam & Bhakti (12th-17th Centuries)
Beginning around 1173, successive waves of armies from Muslim countries invaded and, to varying degrees, consolidated control over North India.[86] During this period Buddhism declined rapidly, and many Hindus converted to Islam. Some Muslim rulers destroyed Hindu temples and otherwise persecuted non-Muslims, while others, such as Akbar, were more tolerant.
Hinduism during this period underwent one of the most profound changes in its history, due in large part to the influence of the prominent teachers Ramanuja, Madhva, and Chaitanya.[86] Followers of the Bhakti movement moved away from the abstract concept of Brahman to a focus on the more accessible avataras, especially Krishna and Rama.[86] A new attitude toward God—emotional, passionate love—replaced the old approaches of sacrificial rite and meditation on the formless Absolute Principle.[89]

Society

The four pursuits of life
Within the Grihastha Dharma there are four noble pursuits of life, known as puruṣhārthas. The four puruṣhārthas are:
1. kāma (desire for sensual pleasure)
2. artha (acquisition of worldly possessions or money)
3. dharma (observance of religious duties)
4. mokṣha (liberation achieved through God-realization)[49][90]
Among these, dharma and moksha play a special role[90]: the pursuit of kama and artha is only noble when pursued under the laws of dharma, with the ultimate goal, moksa, at the horizon.

Temples
Hindu temples inherited rich and ancient rituals and customs, and have occupied a special place in Hindu society. They are usually dedicated to a primary deity, called the presiding deity, and other subordinate deities associated with the main deity. However, some mandirs are dedicated to multiple deities. Most major temples are constructed as per the āgama shāstras and many are sites of pilgrimage. An important element of temple architecture and many Hindu households in general is Vaastu Shastra, the science of aesthetic and auspicious design.
Many Hindus view the four Shankarāchāryas (the abbots of the monasteries of Joshimath, Puri, Shringeri and Dwarka — four of the holiest pilgrimage centers — sometimes to which a fifth at Kanchi is also added) as the Patriarchs of Hinduism.

Ashramas (stages of life)
Traditionally, the life of a Hindu was divided into four Āshramas ("phases" or "stages"; unrelated meanings of āshrama include "monastery" or "refuge"). They are
Brahmacharya ("meditation, or study of the Brahman"): life as a student
Gṛihastha : the stage as a householder
Vānaprastha ("living out in the forest"): the stage of retirement
Sanyāsa: life as a monk .[91]
The first quarter of one's life, Brahmacharya is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation under the guidance of a Guru, building up the mind for the realization of truth.
Grihastha is the householder's stage, in which one marries and satisfies kāma and artha within one's married and professional life respectively (see the pursuits of life). Among the moral obligations of a Hindu householder are the duties to support one's parents, children, guests, priests (Brahmins), and monks(sanyāsis).
Vānaprastha is gradual detachment from the material world. This may involve giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in contemplation of the Divine, and making holy pilgrimages.
Finally, in Sannyāsa, one renounces all worldly attachments, often envisioned as seclusion, to find the Divine through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed the body for the next life (or for liberation).[91]

Monasticism
In their quest to attain the spiritual goal of life, some Hindus choose the path of monasticism (sanyāsa). Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity, celibacy, detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God.[61] A Hindu monk is called a sanyāsī, sādhu, or swāmi.[92] A nun is called a sanyāsini. Renunciates are accorded high respect in Hindu society because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for mental renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their needs.[93] It is considered a highly meritorious act for a householder to provide sādhus with food or other necessaries. Sādhus strive to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked. They also strive to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure, and pain.[61] Sādhus often wear ochre-colored clothing, symbolizing renunciation.

Varnas & the caste system
Hindu society was traditionally divided into four classes, called varnas within what is commonly called the caste system. What varna a person was in was based on occupation —
the Brāhmaṇas (also anglicised as Brahmins): teachers and priests;
the Kṣhatriyas: warriors, kings and administrators;
the Vaishyas: farmers, merchants, herdsmen and businessmen; and
the Shūdras: servants and labourers.
Originally every caste was given equal importance. Later, vested interests crept in. Caste, originally determined by the qualities and aptitudes of the individual, eventually became hereditary. As a result, some castes were made superior or "higher" and others inferior or "lower."[94][95] The caste system gradually expanded to include several sub-castes (jati), along with a class of outcastes (Dalits) and social discrimination against the Shūdra and Dalit classes became a problem. However, the faith of the Shudras and Dalits allowed them to become great saints of Hinduism. Today it is often debated whether the caste system is an integral part of the Hindu religion sanctioned by the scriptures or is simply an outdated social custom.[96][97] Although the scriptures contain some passages that can be interpreted to sanction the caste system, they also contain indications that the caste system is not an essential part of the Hindu religion, and both sides in the debate are able to find scriptural support for their views. [98]
Many social reformers, including Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948), have criticized the problems caused by caste discrimination.[99] The saint and religious teacher Sri Ramakrishna (1836-1886) taught that
lovers of God do not belong to any caste . . . . A brahmin without this love is no longer a brahmin. And a pariah with the love of God is no longer a pariah. Through bhakti (devotion to God) an untouchable becomes pure and elevated.[100]
Although caste distinctions carry less weight in India than they used to, they have not disappeared completely.[101] In 1947 the government of India abolished caste by law, and more recent laws have attempted to remedy lingering problems related to caste.[102][103]

Ahimsa and vegetarianism
Hinduism advocates the practice of ahimsa(non-violence) and respect for all life because the divine soul is believed to permeate all.[104]The term ahimsa first appears in the Upanishads, and is the first of the five Yamas, or eternal vows/restraints in Raja Yoga. The influences of Buddhism and Jainism helped to enhance the importance of ahimsa.
Related to the concept of ahimsa, many Hindus embrace vegetarianism in a bid to respect higher forms of life. While vegetarianism is not a dogma or requirement of Hinduism, it is recommended as a sattwic (purifying) lifestyle. As of 2006, about 30% of the population in India is lacto-vegetarian but the food habits usually vary with community (caste) and region. For instance, the Aadivasi as well as the coastal habitants in India are largely non-vegetarian, with vegetarianism dominant in landlocked states of northern and western India, states like Gujarat (with Jainand Vaishnavic influence), and in many Brahmin and Marwari enclaves around the subcontinent.[105] [106] Some Hindus avoid even onion and garlic, which are regarded as rajasic foods. Another 20% of Hindus avoid meat on specific holy days.
Even Hindus who do eat meat, generally abstain from beef. Some even avoid products made from cow's leather. This is presumably because the largely pastoral Vedic people, and subsequent generations, relied so heavily on the cow for milk and dairy products, tilling of fields and as a provider of fuel and fertilizer, that it was identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure (hence the term gau mata, or Cow Mother). While most contemporary Hindus do not worship the cow (though many venerate her), the cow still holds an honored place in Hindu society as a symbol of unselfish giving. Cow-slaughter is legally banned in almost all states of the Indian Union.[107]

Hindu festivals
Hinduism has many festivals distributed throughout the year. Their dates are usually prescribed by the Hindu calendar and typically celebrate events from Hindu mythology, often coinciding with seasonal changes and occasions of importance in an agricultural economy.
Some widely observed Hindu festivals are,
Dussera, or Durga Puja, celebrates events from Hindu mythology symbolizing the triumph of good over evil;
Diwali, also known as the festival of lights;
Ganesh Chaturthi, the festival celebrating Lord Ganesha;
Maha Shivaratri, the festival dedicated to Lord Shiva;
Ramanavami, celebrates the birth of Lord Ram, the seventh incarnation of Lord Vishnu;
Krishna Janmastami, celebrates the birth of Lord Krishna, the eighth incarnation of Lord Vishnu;
Holi, the spring festival of colors and light.
Sankranthi, Harvest festival of India, celebrated in mid of January every year.
Besides these there many other Hindu festivals, some of which are celebrated primarily by specific denominations or in certain regions of the Indian subcontinent.

Conversion
Since the Hindu scriptures are essentially silent on the issue of religious conversion, the question of whether Hindus should evangelize is open to interpretations.[108] Those who see Hinduism primarily as a philosophy, a set of beliefs, or a way of life generally believe that one can convert to Hinduism by incorporating Hindu beliefs into one's life and by considering oneself a Hindu.[108] However, those who view Hinduism as an ethnicity more than as a religion tend to believe that to be a Hindu, one must be born a Hindu. The Supreme Court of India has taken the former view, holding that the question of whether a person is a Hindu should be determined by the person's belief system, not by their ethnic or racial heritage.[109]
There is no formal process for conversion to Hinduism, although in many denominations a ritual called dīkshā ("initiation") marks the beginning of spiritual life, much like baptism in Christianity. Most Hindu denominations do not actively seek to recruit converts because they believe that the goals of spiritual life can be attained through any religion, as long as the religion is practiced sincerely.[110] Nevertheless, Hindu "missionary" groups operate in various countries to provide spiritual guidance to persons of any religion, irrespective of their conversion to Hinduism. Examples include the Vedanta Society (also known as the Ramakrishna Mission) and the Self-Realization Fellowship.

Schools of Hindu philosophy
The six Āstika or orthodox schools (those which accept the authority of the Vedas) of Hindu philosophy are Nyāya, Vaisheṣhika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Pūrva Mīmāṃsā (also simply called Mīmāṃsā), and Uttara Mīmāṃsā (also called Vedānta).[111] The six schools are known as "Shat Astik (Hindu) Darshana."
The Heterodox Nāstika schools—those which do not rely on the authority of the Vedas—are Buddhism, Jainism and Lokāyata.
Although these philosophies are usually studied formally only by scholars, their influences can be found in many religious books and beliefs held by average Hindus.

Themes and symbols

Tilaka
The tilaka (or tilak) is a mark worn on the forehead and other parts of the body for spiritual reasons. Hindus traditionally wear tilaka, in one form or another, as a mark of faith in a particular tradition. Hindus may wear tilaka always or especially on religious occasions. The shape of the tilaka often represents devotion to a certain deity. For example, a 'U' shape tilaka usually denotes someone as a devotee of Vishnu.
To denote marriage and auspiciousness, married women today commonly wear on the forehead a decorative dot, or bindī. In Southern India, this is called pottu (or bottu). Normally a red bindi or pottu is worn by married women. Among North Indian married woman, the red bindi is worn at the central upper portion of the forehead where the hair starts. Among South Indian married woman, the red pottu is worn at the centre between both the eyebrows

Vibhuti
Vibhuti is the holy ash obtained from sacred puja rites involving fire. It is used on the forehead, normally as three horizontal lines representing Shiva. Some Hindus meld both the three horizontal vibhuti lines of Shiva and the 'U' shape thilaka of Vishnu in an amalgam marker signifying Hari-Hara (Vishnu-Shiva).

Symbolism
Among the most revered symbols in Hinduism, three are quintessentially a part of its culture, and representative of its general ethos:
Aum (or Om, ॐ) is the sacred symbol that represents God (Brahman). It is prefixed and sometimes suffixed to all Vedic mantras and prayers. It is often said to represent God in the three aspects of Vishnu (A), Shiva (U) and Brahmā (M). As the divine primordial vibration, it represents the one ultimate reality, underlying and encompassing all of nature and all of existence. The written syllable serves as a deeply significant and distinctly recognizable symbol for Hindu dharma.
Swastika is a symbol connoting general auspiciousness. It may represent purity of soul, truth, and stability or, alternatively, Surya, the sun.[112] Its rotation in four directions has been used to represent many ideas, but primarily describes the four directions, the four Vedas and their harmonious whole. Its use in Hinduism dates back to ancient times. Nazism used a tilted version of this symbol[112] under the name Hakenkreuz, and associated it with the notion of "purity of race".
Sri Chakra Yantra or Yantra of Tripura Sundari (commonly referred to as Sri Yantra) is a mandala formed by nine interlocking triangles. Four of these triangles are orientated upright representing Shiva - the masculine. Five of these triangles are inverted triangles represent Shakti - the feminine. Together the nine triangles form a web symbolic of the entire cosmos, a womb symbolic of creation and together express non-duality. All other yantras are derivatives of this supreme yantra.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism

Notes
1. ^ Adherents
2. ^ An Introduction to Hinduism, "The Origin of Hinduism" on About.com
3. ^ Hinduism and the Clash of Civilizations by David Frawley (Vamadeva Shastri)
4. ^ Osborne, E: "Accessing R.E. Founders & Leaders, Buddhism, Hinduism and Sikhism Teacher's Book Mainstream.", page 9. Folens Limited, 2005
5. ^ Klostermaier, K:"A Survey of Hinduism", page 1. SUNY Press, 1994.
6. ^ See Gītā Dhyānam
7. ^ a b c d e See generally, Swami Bhaskarananda, The Essentials of Hinduism (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5
8. ^ Swami Bhaskarananda, Ritualistic Worship and Its Utility
9. ^ See Swami Nikhilananda, The Upanishads: A New Translation, Vol. I (5th Ed. 1990) ISBN 0-911206-15-9.
10. ^ Aitareya Upanishad 3.3
11. ^ Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5,
12. ^ Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10,
13. ^ Chhāndogya Upanishad 6.8.7 et seq.
14. ^ Chhāndogya Upanishad 3.14.1
15. ^ Nrisimhauttaratāpini, cited in Swami Nikhilananda, The Upanishads: A new Translation Vol. I.
16. ^ In the Bhagavad Gītā, Krishna also describes the nature of Brahman. For example, he says "And I am the basis of the impersonal Brahman, which is immortal, imperishable and eternal and is the constitutional position of ultimate happiness" (brahmano hi pratishthaham...) B-Gita (As-it-Is) 14.27 Translation by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada
17. ^ See generally, Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda ISBN 81-85301-75-1
18. ^ The presence of God within the heart of every living being is mentioned in the Bhagavad Gita at 9.29, 15.15 and 18.61, which says that God is the source of inner direction and that it is through God's power alone that we have consciousness.
19. ^ See generally, C.J. Fuller, The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India (Princeton 2004) ISBN 0-691-12048-X
20. ^ Karel Werner, A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism at 80 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2
21. ^ Harman, William, "Hindu Devotion" 106 in Contemporary Hinduism, Robin Rinehart, ed. (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8
22. ^ Harman, William, "Hindu Devotion" 104 in Contemporary Hinduism, Robin Rinehart, ed. (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8
23. ^ Louis Renou, The Nature of Hinduism 55 (New York 1962)
24. ^ a b Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hindusim 73-74 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5
25. ^ Bhagavata Purana 2.3.1-9. [1]
26. ^ C.J. Fuller, The Camphor Flame 32 (Princeton 2004) ISBN 0-691-12048-X
27. ^ Bhagavad Gita, IV 7-8
28. ^ a b c Monier Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India 27 (New Delhi 1974)
29. ^ a b Karl Werner, A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism at 37 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2; See also the Vedic statement "ayam ātmā brahma" (This Atman is Brahman).
30. ^ Sir Monier Monier-Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism 232-33 (4th Ed., New York 1891)
31. ^ Bhagavad Gita IX.20-21
32. ^ Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Vol III. 118-120; Vol. I. 6-7.
33. ^ Sargeant, Winthrop, Introduction to The Bhagavad Gita at 3 (New York, 1984) ISBN 0-87395-831-4
34. ^ a b Swami Nikhilananda, The Upanishads: A New Translation Vol. I, at 3 (5th Ed. 1990) ISBN 0-911206-15-9
35. ^ Swami Nikhilananda, The Upanishads: A New Translation Vol. I, at 7 (5th Ed. 1990) ISBN 0-911206-15-9
36. ^ Coulson, Michael, Sanskrit: An Introduction to the Classical Language (2d Ed. 1992) ISBN 0-8442-3825-2
37. ^ Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Vol III. 118.
38. ^ Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Vol. I. 6-7.
39. ^ Swami Harshananda, "A Bird's Eye View of the Vedas," in Holy Scriptures: A Symposium on the Great Scriptures of the World (2d Ed.) ISBN 81-7120-121-0
40. ^ See Karel Werner, A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism 166 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2
41. ^ Monier-Williams, Religious Life and Thought in India 25-41 (New Delhi 1974)
42. ^ "The Smritis" by Swami Sivananda
43. ^ Sarvopaniṣado gāvo, etc. (Gītā Māhātmya 6). Gītā Dhyānam, cited in Introduction to Bhagavad-gītā As It Is.
44. ^ See Swami Nikhilananda, The Upanishads: A New Translation Vol. I, at 8 (5th ed. 1990) ISBN 0-911206-15-9
45. ^ Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda II.374 (18th Printing 1995) ISBN 81-85301-75-1
46. ^ Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda II.365-74 (18th Printing 1995) ISBN 81-85301-75-1
47. ^ Brahmachari Siddheshwar Shai v. State of West Bengal (Supreme Court of India), available at [2]
48. ^ See Monier Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India 64, 66 (New Delhi 1974)
49. ^ a b c Karel Werner, A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2
50. ^ See Monier Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India 116 (New Delhi 1974)
51. ^ Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism 132 ISBN 1-884852-02-5
52. ^ Bhagavad Gita Ch. III, ISBN 1-56619-670-1
53. ^ a b Patanjali's Yoga Aphorisms II.29, English translation & commentary (side-by-side with original Sanskrit ) in Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Vol. I, 29 ISBN 81-85301-75-1
54. ^ a b Swami Bhaskarananda, Meditation: Mind & Patanjali's Yoga 7 (Viveka Press 2001) ISBN 1-884852-03-3
55. ^ Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Vol. I, 131 ISBN 81-85301-75-1
56. ^ See Patanjali's Yoga Sutras
57. ^ See also Swami Bhaskarananda, Meditation: Mind & Patanjali's Yoga 37 (Viveka Press 2001) ISBN 1-884852-03-3 , citing Patanjali's Yoga Sutras
58. ^ Mani, Vettam, Purāṇic Encyclopedia 898 (Delhi 1998) ISBN 81-208-0597-6
59. ^ Contemporary Hinduism, Rinehart, Robin (Ed.) (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8
60. ^ Swami Bhaskarananda, Meditation, Mind, and Patanjali's Yoga (Viveka Press 2001) ISBN 1-884852-03-3
61. ^ a b c See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism 112 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-0205
62. ^ a b Swami Vivekananda, Vedanta, Voice of Freedom, Ed. Swami Chetanananda 71 ( 1990) ISBN 0-916356-63-9
63. ^ Strictly speaking, no action is inherently good or bad. This concept is illustrated by Krishna's injunction to Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gītā to fight in a battle against his own relatives, which Arjuna argued was wrong under any circumstances. Sri Krishna taught Arjuna that the rightness or wrongness of an action depends on the motivation with which it is performed, not on the nature of the action itself.
64. ^ E.g., Compare [3] with Pratima Bowes, The Hindu Religious Tradition 54-80 (Allied Pub. 1976) ISBN 0-7100-8668
65. ^ Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Vol. II, at 217-225 (18th reprint 1995) ISBN 81-85301-75-1
66. ^ Alex Michaels, Hinduism: Past and Present 154-56 (Princeton 1998) ISBN 0-691-08953-1. See also karma.
67. ^ Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism, 79-86 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5
68. ^ Bhagavad Gita II.22, ISBN 1-56619-670-1
69. ^ See Bhagavad Gita XVI.8-20
70. ^ See Swami Vivekananda, Jnana Yoga 301-02 (8th Printing 1993)
71. ^ Rinehart, Robin, ed., Contemporary Hinduism19-21 (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8
72. ^ Karel Werner, A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism 110 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2
73. ^ Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, Translation by Swami Nikhilananda (8th Ed. 1992) ISBN 0-911206-01-9
74. ^ Swami Vivekananda, Vedanta: Voice of Freedom, Ed. Swami Chetanananda (1990) ISBN 0-916356-63-9
75. ^ Michaels, Alex, Hindusim: Past and Present 137-42 (Princeton 2004) ISBN 0-691-08953-1
76. ^ a b Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism 157 (Viveka Press 1994)
77. ^ See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism 156 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5
78. ^ Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism 137 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5
79. ^ arcye viṣṇau śīlā-dhīr. . . narakī saḥ.
80. ^ Twain, Mark, "Following the Equator: A journey around the world"
81. ^ MSN Encarta on Hinduism
82. ^ Karl Werner, A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism at 73 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2
83. ^ "Hindu History" The BBC names a bath and phallic symbols of the Harappan civilization as features of the "Prehistoric religion (3000-1000 BCE)".
84. ^ T. Oberlies (Die Religion des Rgveda, Vienna 1998. p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100.
85. ^ The Ṛgvedic deity Dyaus, regarded as the father of the other deities, is linguistically cognate with Zeus—the king of the gods in Greek mythology, Iovis (gen. of Jupiter) —the king of the gods in Roman mythology, and Ziu in Germanic mythology [4]. Other Vedic deities also have cognates with those found in other Indo-European speaking peoples' mythologies; see Proto-Indo-European religion.
86. ^ a b c d e A.L. Basham, Ed., A Cultural History of India (Oxford 1999) ISBN 0195639219
87. ^ Sir Charles Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol. I (London 1954)
88. ^ Robin Rinehart, Contemporary Hinduism 28 (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8
89. ^ J.T.F. Jordens, “Medieval Hindu Devotionalism,” in A.L. Basham, Ed., A Cultural History of India (Oxford 1999) ISBN 0195639219
90. ^ a b Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism 7
91. ^ a b S.S. Rama Rao Pappu, "Hindu Ethics", 165-68, in Contemporary Hinduism (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8
92. ^ R.S. McGregor, The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary (5th ed. 1999) ISBN 019563846-8
93. ^ Alex Michaels, Hinduism: Past and Present 316 (Princeton 1998) ISBN 0-691-08953-1
94. ^ Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism at 25 (Viveka Press 1994).
95. ^ For a survey of other theories regarding the origins of caste, see Elenanor Zelliot, "Caste in Contemporary India," in Contemporary Hinduism, Robert Rinehart, Ed. (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8
96. ^ Alex Michaels, Hinduism: Past and Present 188-97 (Princeton 2004) ISBN 0-691-08953-1
97. ^ Caste System View of Scholars
98. ^ The most ancient scriptures—the Shruti texts, or Vedas—place very little importance on the caste system, mentioning caste only rarely and in a cursory manner. Later scriptures, however, such as the Bhagavad Gītā (4.13) state that the four varṇa divisions are created by God, and the Manusmṛiti categorizes the different castes.[Manu Smriti Laws of Manu] 1.87-1.91 However, at the same time, the Gītā says that one's varṇa is to be understood from one's personal qualities and one's work, not one's birth. This view is supported by records of great sages who became Brahmins. For example, the sage Vishvāmitra was a king of the Kṣhatriya caste, and only later became recognized as a great Brahmin sage, indicating that his caste was not determined by birth. Similarly, Vālmiki, once a low-caste robber, became a great sage. Veda Vyāsa, another sage, was the son of a fisherwoman (Sabhlok, Prem. "Glimpses of Vedic Metaphysics". Page 21). A hymn from the Rig Veda seems to indicate that one's caste is not necessarily determined by that of one's family:
"I am a bard, my father is a physician, my mother's job is to grind the corn." (Rig Veda 9.112.3)
99. ^ Elenanor Zelliot, "Caste in Contemporary India," in Contemporary Hinduism, Robert Rinehart, Ed. (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8
100. ^ M, Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, Translation by Swami Nikhilananda 155 (Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center, 8th Printing 1992) TEST
101. ^ C.J. Fuller, The Camphor Flame 13 (Princeton 2004) ISBN 0-691-12048-X
102. ^ Karel Werner, A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism 165 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2
103. ^ See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism at 26 (Viveka Press 1994)
104. ^ Monier-Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India (New Delhi, 1974 edition)
105. ^ Deep Vegetarianism (1999) by: Michael Allen Fox.
106. ^ Yadav, Y., Kumar, S. "The food habits of a nation", The Hindu, August 14, 2006. Retrieved on 2006-11-17.
107. ^ Krishnakumar, R.. "Beef without borders", Frontline, Narasimhan Ram, August 30-September 12, 2003. Retrieved on 2006-10-07.
108. ^ a b Does Hinduism Accept Newcomers?. Retrieved on 2006-11-14.
109. ^ Brahmachari Siddheshwar Shai v. State of West Bengal (Supreme Court of India), available at [5]
110. ^ See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism pp. 189-92 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5
111. ^ "Schools of Philosophy"
112. ^ a b Karel Werner, A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism 147-48 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2
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